Education and Poverty Essay

Education of poor is a challenge that has kept American political and academic quarters on a precipitous edge. Although the government spends billions of dollars on various social welfare activities especially directed towards eradicating poverty and bridging up the enormous gap that exists poor have always found education a distant realm, where their access is limited and its longevity is in doubt. The issue takes a very drastic form when even the children of American poor are unable to avail available educational opportunities. Among all the developed countries, United States of America reports highest levels of child poverty where one child in every six children lives below poverty line. According to US Bureau of Census (1998), out of total 36 million poor living in USA, 15 million of them were children and among them, around 25 percent children face extreme poverty. Incidences of poverty among children have extremely negative implications for their academic and educational opportunities, seriously devastating their early formative years, that in turns jeopardize rest of their life. An overwhelming volume of research in the field brings out conclusive relationship between social economic status and educational opportunities. The relationship becomes more proportional with lowering economic status where academic underachievement and discrepancies in educational opportunities are very acute. This paper looks into the social, economic and political implications of under-education of poor children in USA and identify the ways that can prove effective in ensuring compulsory education for every American child, irrespective of their socio-economic status. Education as a social problem The issue of education has become a matter of great public and social concern due to the differential nature of the education policy and the school system, creating and an unbalanced and destabilized social structure. Moreover, as academicians, have indicated, the reason for worry is that while school system has been made elaborate, their deliverable content has been not, negating the purpose of the education and creating a society of literate but uneducated people (Kumar, 1997). Educationists and public policy makers, despite their claims and efforts of creating a world class school system and education model to cater to the needs of future America and meets the purpose of extending education’s benefits to every class of the society, have missed the beat by focusing more on academic parameters while ignoring the socio-economical-cultural aspects that play equally important part in determining the final outcome (Pipho, 1999). A failed socio-economical system, with widespread social evils and depleted living conditions, especially in the semi-urban areas and urban slums creates diversified pockets within the social structure that makes the possibility of any qualified education and school system a difficult proposition under the existing set of circumstances. The vicious cycle Education and poverty share a very deep, although inverse relation, each one determining the eventual impact and influence of other. For example, according to National Assessment of Educational Progress (2000) evaluation, educational outcomes is determined by birth weight, nutrition, housing quality, and access to health care. These factors have important bearing on cognitive functioning of child and quality of parenting, that in turn determines educational achievement. Low quality of educational attainment is a major cause of poverty, and poverty is a key determinant of academic performance. Therefore, poverty establishes a vicious cycle where it reinforces its effect in a continuing cycle to make educational underachievement chronic, inflicting heavy costs on social development. Educational standards are further effected by lower public funding for schools serving low-income group than schools serving higher-SES children. Funding equity is yet largely unimplemented , and a number of discrepancies, including differential state and federal policies in fund allotment comes in question to affect equitable distribution of resources. Need for Early Intervention One of the most important determining factors of effective education is children’s academic interest that has substantial impact on academic achievement ((Wagner, Spiker and Linn, 2002)). Children displaying interest, motivation, engagement, goals, values, and self-efficacy demonstrate higher degree of academic success, highlighting the importance of these factors in educational outcome. According to Chapman et al (2000), quoted by Wagner, Spiker and Linn, (2002) shows that the relation between interests and skills starts to develop in the early formative years, and it has crucial role in predicting future achievement and learning capabilities of children. (Chapman et al. 2000). Research has shown that in the early years of development, children from both lower and higher socio economic groups show comparable degrees of confidence level, learning attitude, grasping ability and concentration(Alexander & Entwisle 1988, Stipek & Ryan 1997). However, as they are denied further opportunities to pursue education in an orderly and timely manner, they lose interest in school within the first years and gradually their competence, self confidence and educational inclination dwindles, bringing instability and disorientation in their approach. (Stipek & Tannatt 1984, Wigfield et al. 1997 as quoted by Wagner, Spiker and Linn, 2002). Skills and interest are reciprocal in nature and their outcome is often influenced by the available exposure and opportunities. Thus children who read more, get to develop better reading habits and children who give more time to mathematics have their numerical skills sharpened. Similarly, children who do not get to read or do not get engaged in mathematical exercises are likely to stay behind others. Children also get discouraged from actively taking up education due to their repeated academic failures, increasing frustration levels, and lack of motivational educational guidance. Failure, distress and teachers’ negative attitude towards children from low socio-economic groups are the key de-motivational factors that severely affect poor children and keeps them at permanent disadvantage against children from higher soci-economic structure((Wagner, Spiker and Linn, 2002)). Lower levels of expectations; parents’ indifference, and ground economic condition are other demotivating factors. These problems take irrevocable form as children get older and form their own peer groups that create substantial barrier in their integration with educational mainstream. ((Wagner, Spiker and Linn, 2002)). Students from lower economic groups form a disadvantaged lot from the very beginning of their life. They have very few books, educational toys and experience with education. Research about poverty and educational facilities have shown that less than half the pre-school children from lower economic groups have access to educational books, while for better off families, almost 98 percent of pre school children have complete set of educational accessories. Children from poor families on average receive only 25 hours of book reading by the time of school entry, while the same figure is 1000 to 1700 hours for middle-class children. Poverty misshapes the entire educational construct and context of children. It substantially alters their emotional and behavioral function, relationships with adults and peers, and family, school, and community; In these key areas of development, low-SES children are placed at risk and disadvantage against their peers from higher income group (Stevenson, 1997) Poverty instigates a range of externalizing problems such as aggression, inattention, impulsivity and rebelliousness- all of these leading to gradual academic underachievement. Children become disruptive and noncompliant and develop behavior problems such as problems in paying attention, relating to others and controlling their emotion. This problem is further compounded by teachers’ reaction to situation, who adopt a stricter code of conduct for children displaying behavioral problems in attempt to bring their focus back on studies. However, more than often, children from lower socio-economic background are knowingly or inadvertently discriminated. It pushes them closer to each other and instigates rule breaking habits, indiscipline, disobedience and finally delinquent behavior-a process that completely sew off their connection with schools and academics ((Wagner, Spiker and Linn, 2002; Stevenson, 1997) Analysis of Academic Influence One of major initiative in bridging up the gap among children from middle and higher income group and children form lower income group is application of technology and science. It is envisaged that computers could play a important role in bringing about a harmonized and equitable educational structure. Although current computer access is very limited for low-income group children, the increasing pace of their expansion in educational framework holds many promises towards its re-design and restructure that could benefit large number of children from lower economic groups (Stevenson, 1997) Researchers have constantly identified need of integrating technology through the earliest phases of education to prepare them to compete with other children when they grown mature. Issues in improving public education to include Poor With huge investment and cash flow, but insignificant results to show for, following are the major issues in improving the American school system to orient them to needs of all the socio-economic group (Barnes, 1997)

Explain How Practices That Support Equaity and Inclusion Reduce

Amanda Hopwood Cache Level 2 in Diploma in Children’s Care, Learning and Development Pin/Enrolment Number – 30169038 ULN – 6939676189 Assessor – Jennifer Hughes Assurer – Helen Tweddle SHC 21 Introduction to equality & inclusion in health, social care or children 7 young people settings 1. 1 –Explain what is meant by: Diversity – means is to understand that each child/young person is individual, unique and different i. e. , it could be the differences in race, heritage, customs, beliefs, physical appearance, mental capability.Diversity should be valued and respected as each person are completely different to any other person, even in the examples I have stated above. We need diversity as is gives us different views and opinions. We must value our diversity so we can work together to live a happy life. Equality – means to give all children/young person equal opportunities to achieve their best in the setting. Each child is differ ent so you have to respect that. Some children might need support. You can do this by planning ahead to achieve all aspects of learning and development for all children irrespective of disability, heritage etc.It's about getting the balance between each child. Inclusion – means to ensure all embodies such as children and their families have the right support regardless of their ability to take part in a range of activities in the setting. Inclusion is the process of making this happen. to do this in the setting you must take away all barriers and give each person a warm and welcoming attitude whilst in setting. Discrimination – means a child/young person is treated differently because of their membership such as race, colour, gender, religion, ancestry, origin, disabilities.It involves excluding or restricting child/young person in a membership from opportunities that are available to other children/young person. Children may experience discrimination because of their colour, culture/religion, impairments, gender, race, size because they are disabled or have special educational needs. Children who are discriminated may feel undervalued and may lose confidence. They may find others will have a low expectations of what they can achieve. Others might assume they cannot do an activity as they can't cope.

Entry of the Brand Kensie into My Store Research Paper

Entry of the Brand Kensie into My Store - Research Paper Example I believe that the location of my store on this street is ideal for the most working class and middle-class parents can see the store and walk in to find clothes for their children. The location is also ideal to attract more customers as they go by their schedules. My store is located near office blocks and also restaurants. It is convenient for those going to work and also those going out for lunch or dinner. My decision to bring in the Kensie brand in my store stems from the fact that my sales and revenue have been steady over the past few years. Many customers come back to buy more junior clothes for their children. Since my store targets middle-income earners, it means that most can afford the prices of the Macy brand. It is important to understand that the merchandise I sell is localized as a reflection of the location where my store is located (Los Angeles). Having offered localized merchandise for some time now, I decided to expand my product choice by bringing in the Kensie brand. The target market of the Kensie brand is still young children. The introduction of this brand is certainly going to stir excitement and curiosity among shoppers at my store which eventually draws more customers. However, due to competition, it is necessary to note that other stores may decide to take on the same marketing strategy as me. To avoid this, it is critical that I make careful planning to ensure that my store stands out. One of my competitive advantages is the location of my store and my target market. My strategy involves the continued sale of exclusive and localized merchandise. Increasing my merchandise by bringing in the Kensie brand is a sure way to increase my sales. One of the challenges that I have to face with my target market of the middle and high-income earners is that these two groups are always seeking to get hold of the newest and most exciting thing in the market. This group is challenging and difficult to impress.

Resource Management - Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Resource Management - Business Plan - Essay Example existing market trends, customer’s requirements, and the ways to fulfill their needs. Our aim is to provide our customers with highest quality services and products to keep them staying with us again and again. At small scale, the company will mostly contain male professional customers between the ages of 18 to 65 years of medium to high income. On the large extent, we will focus on retailers and wholesale dealers. We believe that by getting crucial financial support through its sale, in 02 years, the company will be able to capture 5-10% of the premium cigar market in the Greece. ABC Tobacco has estimated that its market share revenues will be of $1000000 in  a year and $1600000 and $2300000 at the end of 2nd and 3rd year respectively. We will specialize in the tobacco field and our mission is to gain and maintain the top position in tobacco industry by offering high-quality cigars at inexpensive rates and at easily approachable sites. ABC Tobacco Company is a Greek based corporation  and is equally shared and owned by Michael Collins as president, Jonathan Smith as vice president, and Jeffery Thompson as production manager. The administrative composition of the company has been designed on divisional structure as shown in the following figure. The results carried out through a recent survey reveal that the use of all types of tobacco brands is almost constant in all age groups. ABC Tobacco is going to launch its tobacco brands in ten major cities of Greece where the biggest cigarette user age group is 18 to 25 years. The following data represents the percentage of tobacco user age groups of different brands. Men use typical type of tobacco more frequently. But generally pipe and cigar smokers remain in touch with a particular product. Another interesting trend in pipe smokers is their continuous purchase of extra pipe. The survey reports point out that pipe smokers feel themselves comfortable by purchasing extra pipes. ABC will have to train its

School Psychologist Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

School Psychologist Interview - Essay Example It is clear that the assistive technology is a lifeline that can increase the opportunities for students to educate themselves and to interact with the society with confidence even after disabilities. It can also be said that the assistive technology is also used as an evaluation process for students. It helps to evaluate students with disabilities (Anogianakis, Buhler, & Soede, 1997). Therefore, teachers in XYZ School are using this technology for two purposes. One is to teach in a different and easy manner to the disabled students and secondly to evaluate those students. The reason behind this is that it was very difficult to evaluate the disabled students especially those who have lack of their motor skills. In addition, all those students who have physical, sensory or cognitive disabilities, they face barriers to learning. Therefore, it will not be incorrect to state that use of assistive technology is helpful in the evaluation process. It provides the accurate and fair results, and it is easy for students and teachers (Federici & Scherer, 2012). On the other side, for the progress monitoring of all students in the school the use of the latest technology is essential for teachers especially. The reason behind it is that technology systems assists in strengthening of the process to be implemented for making instructional decisions for the student’s progress. The increased use of technology in the school system allows teachers to meet the diverse needs of children in a unique and interesting manner (Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2009).

The Hollywood Renaissance of the 1960s and Early 1970s Essay - 1

The Hollywood Renaissance of the 1960s and Early 1970s - Essay Example The decade of the 1960s and into the early 1970s marked a period of turbulence and change in the American socio-political landscape. Among the events giving way to this landscape were the civil rights movements, the hippy culture, radicalism among students, the new left, feminism, the gay rights’ movements, the anti-Vietnam war movements, the Kennedy assassination, the Watergate scandal, the US withdrawal from Vietnam and the oil crisis among other events (King 2002, p. 14). The period of the 1960s and early 1970s was also the Cold War era and many Americans feared a nuclear attack (Neve 1995, p. 221). Arguably these events were quite dramatic and imposed on American culture in a very short period of time. I.The Hollywood Renaissance One of the most striking features of the Hollywood Renaissance was Hollywood’s departure from an attempt to idealize American life and culture. Instead, a majority of the films produced during the era of the 1960s and 1970s appealed to America’s conscience and adapted a social expression. The arts in general gave voice to the socio-political underpinnings of the times and attempted to contribute to change. Man (1994) observed that Hollywood cinema depicted â€Å"common themes† that: ...included the breakdown of traditional values, socio-political oppression, the psychology of sex and violence, moral ambiguity, alienation, solipsism, paranoia, and disillusionment (p. 1). During the 1960s and the early 1970s, filmmakers had greater creative freedom in that the studio system faded out and filmmakers had the ability to be more critical of social issues and could be more innovative (Ryan and Kellner 1988, p. 6). The Production Code was also eliminated during this period and a rating system much like the current system was started. As a result, filmmakers were able to take on topics and issues that were not previously permitted (Ryan and Kellner 1988, p. 6). Kramer (2005) identified three common themes that characterize the films attributed to the Hollywood Renaissance of the 1960s and the early 1970s. First, the films of this period were described as a â€Å"large number of challenging films† (Kramer 2005, p. 2). Secondly, a majority of the most successful films were produced by a select number of young film directors many of which had graduated from film schools such as Francis Ford Coppola who had graduated from the University of California in L os Angeles. Finally, the â€Å"intense formal and thematic innovation† that marked the films of the 1960s and early 1970s ended with the production of block-bluster films such as Steven Spielberg’s 1975 Jaws and George Lucas’ Star Wars of 1977 (Kramer 2005, p. 2). Nystrom (2009) explained that this new class of directors and producers began to perceive its audience as youthful and intellectual (p. 26). This was the main factor that influenced the culture depicted in film production during the 1960s and the early 1970s. The prevailing view was that the audience was such that it was no longer enough to simply entertain. This new audience was open to the examination of ideas and issues. Michael Laughlin, Two-Lane Blacktop (1971) reportedly said that: Our generation has gone beyond mere entertainment. We are too well educated, too intelligent to be just entertained (Nystrom 2009, p. 26). Buck Henry screenwriter for The Graduate made a similar observation. Henry note d that during the era of the Hollywood Renaissance: Heroes can now be intellectual, which they never were in American films. Perhaps it’s because, until recently, the audience was so profoundly anti-intellectual itself. But the younger generation identifies with the melodrama of ideas (Nystrom 2009, p. 26). Paul Williams, director of Out of it (1969) and The Revolutionary (1970) linked the Hollywood

Welfare Reform in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Welfare Reform in the US - Essay Example Drug testing for welfare recipients would save money and effectively limit the number of drug abusers collecting money. Each year in the United States, approximately four hundred billion dollars is given to citizens in the form of welfare. The recipients are out of work or do not make enough money to live a healthy, albeit basic, lifestyle. The cash assistance given is used towards housing, bills and utilities, food, and clothing, and the primary focus is ensuring that any children involved are being taken care of. Though many recipients use their money to make sure their families have food in their stomachs and a roof over their heads, roughly twenty percent of recipients use their government aid to fuel their illegal drug use. They may be in the same financial distress as others on welfare, but instead of using their government aid to improve the quality of their lives, they use it to make it increasingly worse. It has been proposed that people who apply for welfare should be drug tested before being allowed to receive cash assistance from the government. By drug testing recipients, the government can weed out the people who have the potential to abuse the system by using their money on illegal substances. ...It almost becomes a case of who is more deserving of government aid. However, a need for it has arisen. Drug testing potential welfare recipients can be monetarily beneficial for the government. If they stop supplying drug addicts with money, that money can be put to other state or national uses. The extra money can also be put towards other families that need financial assistance and will spend the money on necessities. Another possible outcome that could come as a result of drug testing recipients is that by cutting drug abusers from a primary source of money, then the drug users will have less opportunity to obtain drugs. In the end, more money will exist for the people who sincerely need it to improve their lives, and increasingly less money will be available for the drug abusers to feed their addiction.

The Importance of Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Importance of Education - Essay Example So second thing to look for is the fee structure and the scholarship facilities, not every student can pay high fees that mostly good universities ask for so they apply for scholarships which are mostly need based or on high academic records of the students. So a mediocre student who is not financially stable and does not have a sound academic record can not avail the facility of studying at high reputed universities (Runciman, 2009). Then what is left is the infrastructure of a university if that is well formed and is feasible for a student to adapt. So a university should then be evaluated on the basis of the facilities it is providing to the students such as transport, building and communication system among the management and the students. Location of a university also matters a lot while deciding because mostly students prefer the universities in their home town or nearby location to avoid the cultural shock, cost of living, daily life facilities such as nearby shopping stores, bank and the accommodation issues which can be a great nuisance for students (McChesney, 1999). Some students also opt for the universities abroad again they have to go through all the above process of evaluation for selection one of the thousands of universities (Kaplan, 2003). Advertisements of these universities play a vital role as they create awareness among the students in other countries of their existence and the facilities they provide so that students do not have much problem researching about these universities, their repute, fee structure, infra structure and scholarship facilities (Johnson, 1978). After evaluating all the factors mentioned above a student may choose the university that is highest on the feasibility... As the paper declares  mostly students from their very early student life choose a field of interest and from there the process of university selection starts and when it is about time they have sorted out which university is best for them but still there are students who have a pool of choices around them and it is really hard for them to pick just one. So they start evaluating among the pool of universities on the basis of their infra structure, popularity, fee structure, scholarship facilities, location and advertisement.This essay stresses that availability of accommodation and the employability of an institute remain to be the most important factors which help students in decision making. All of the students study hard to reach Master’s programme level and they definitely want to get a surety about future employment and that is why this information plays a vital role in decision making. In reply to the third question that if the students know that Nottingham Trent Unive rsity (NTU) offers scholarships or not, the respondents have said that majority of them know about the scholarship offered by NTU before entering the university. 23 out of 30 claimed that they knew about the scholarship offering by NTU. 7 participants said they did not know about it.  When the 30 participants were asked about the ranking of universities, a clear majority of them agreed that they would like to go to better ranked universities.

Procurement Routes in the Construction Industry Assignment

Procurement Routes in the Construction Industry - Assignment Example This process follows a number of steps but depending on the urgency of the required goods or services, some organizations may choose to make their procurement routes less lengthy and less tedious. Conventionally, procurement entails everything that is done within the complete acquisition of goods and services i.e. from preparation and dispensation of a requisition form through to the receipt of goods or services and the approval of the invoice for payment (White, 1996: pp. 242-3). Procurement often follows ten major steps: planning for purchase of goods or services, determination of the specific standards desired in the goods and services, development of finer specifications on the goods and services, doing extensive research on possible suppliers and selecting one supplier, conducting value analysis, determining the financing of the purchase e.g. whether to take a loan or use money in the company's bank account, negotiating the price, making the purchase, administration of the supply contract, controlling inventories and stores to guard against diversion and finally, the eventual disposals if any. Generally, the process is lengthy because of need for quality goods and/or services from competitive suppliers at competitive prices. The rules governing the process need to be followed strictly because the process o procurement has been identified as the key and major gateway for embezzlement and misappropriation of company funds and other corrupt deals. Each industry has its own procurement regulations and the whole process of procurement is structured to fit the nature of the industry's operations. For example, if an industry requires goods and services to be delivered urgently, then the process is likely to be made short. Taking the construction industry as our working example, this paper seeks to highlight the process of procurement in this industry with special emphasis on the particular types of procurement routes in the construction industry. The construction industry deals with the provision of a number of goods and services. It deals with the building of new structures such as schools, churches, factories, apartments, houses, offices, factories, roads and even bridges. Apart from building of the aforementioned structures, the industry also engages in preparation of the building or construction site, modification and annexing of existing structures and the maintenance and repair of the already existing structures. Therefore, the constructors are usually contracted to carry out any of the activities. The contract may involve the design alone, the design and building or even the management of the construction process carried out by other constructors. The way of contracting these constructors to carry out any of the services may be termed as routes of procurement. There are three main routes of procurement: Traditional Procurement also called conventional procurement, Design and Build Procurement and Management Procurement . Traditional Procurement also called conventional procurement is a very common procurement route for most small and medium sized projects such as the construction of a school. The client in this kind of procurement route first contracts consultant(s). The consultant(s) design and lay down all the exact specifications on how the construction is supposed to be carried out. After the consultants have completed their job, the client then proceeds to contract a

PEST(LE) Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

PEST(LE) Analysis - Essay Example In UK market, there is further scope of growth for the company. UK’s consumer market demand is well aligned with business strategies of IKEA. The company has been able to secure desirable market share due to its effective cost control strategies, continuous new product development and competitive operational procedure. IKEA is inclined towards offering low prices to customers for its wide array of innovative products. According to Allen (2006), PESTEL analysis is a strategic tool that helps to determine key drivers of change present in the business environment. The main components of this tool are political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal factors. Political factors stands for government policy which directly impacts workplace environment, technology quality, health and safety conditions, etc. Economic conditions include interest rates, rate of economic growth and taxation charges. Social factors relate to all possible events which are affecting community and market socially (Allen, 2006). As per Das and Teng (2009), it comprises of population dynamics, cultural expectations, norms, health consciousness, etc. Technology factor states that new products or processes are developed with the support of advanced technology. This factor facilitates quality enhancement, innovation and reduction in overall costs. Legal aspect corresponds to legislative and regulatory framework tha t governs countries of operations or respective product areas. Environmental factors encompass changes in climate and weather. Environmental awareness is an area of concern for all business organizations (Das and Teng, 2009). Research methodology lays the foundation for any research study. Any study can be classified as quantitative or qualitative research study. Quantitative study deals with market related data which can be statistically analyzed. On the other hand, qualitative study is opinions or views of experts. There are two

The Effects of the Immigration Justice System Essay Example for Free

The Effects of the Immigration Justice System Essay Illegal Immigration in America is at an all time high, but what the government is failing to see is the after affects this has on family and children of illegal immigrants. After September 2011 government has started enforcing immigration laws in staggering numbers, when in fact some of these illegal immigrants have been in this country for many years living a productive life with their families. After years of immigration laws being looked over now everyone in the illegal immigrants’ life is affected due to stiffer immigration laws. Immigration is a topic on a lot of people’s minds these days. Many illegal immigrants are being pulled over due to racial profiling. According to Hughes (2012), â€Å"Nearly half of the suspected illegal immigrants picked up for deportation under Frederick County’s enforcement program last year were arrested for a traffic violation or driving without a license, according to county records. † Subsequently they are deported leaving their families behind here in America to make a tough decision as to stay or go be with family. These families most of the time are mixed citizenship families as to where one or both parents are illegal to this country. As for the children they too sometimes are of mixed citizenship. Most people say â€Å"send them back they broke the law† but why should the children have to pay for their parents mistakes. The government and the justice system need to come up with an immigration reform that is fair to all but still penalize them for breaking the law. If you have a criminal history you should be deported but if the biggest crime you have committed is driving without a license you should not be deported. Not only does the Immigration justice system affect the illegal immigrant it also affect the families and children of the illegal immigrant. â€Å"U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) have adopted common sense policies that ensure our immigration laws are enforced in a way that best enhances public safety, border security and the integrity of the immigration system (ICE, 2012). † This is how the immigration system is run since September 2011. Before this illegal immigrants who lived in this country only feared deportation if they ommitted a major crime. For that reason most whom where here illegally lived a very productive life without committing any crimes. They started families here in America if they did not already have a family. â€Å"As part of this approach, ICE has adopted clear priorities that call for the agencys enforcement resources to be focused on the identification and removals of those that have broken criminal laws, recently crossed our border, repeatedly violated immigration law or are fugitives from immigration court (ICE, 2012). With this being said does it make you wonder, what happens to the families and children that are also entangled in the Immigration justice system web? The Immigration justice system is breaking up families everyday in America. Morel (2012, p. 1) states, â€Å"There are 4. 5 million U. S. citizen children who have an undocumented parent, according to First Focus, a national children and families advocate group. † So what happens to these children when their parent or parents are deported? Well the answer is a lot of these children are now orphaned in this country and are put into the foster care system. Some are at an age where they will not get to be adopted into a home; they will live for years going from foster home to foster home. As for the children who still has a parent here in America they will be faced with many difficulties. Their parent that was deported was more than likely the â€Å"bread winner† of the family so now the family has to struggle just to survive. The family has to decide whether to stay in their home country or to pack up and move to an unknown foreign country were the children possibly will not even speak the language. The deleterious impact of these public efforts has been most profound on immigrant children, many of whom may be U. S. citizens living with undocumented families. † (Androff et al. , 2011) Therefore the children are affected in every way from physical to mental due to the stress a child is put under at the time of deportation. May the child be a citizen or not of this country they did not chose to live this life and go through the suffering many are enduring. Some people say that it is the illegal immigrant who has been selfish and caused these problems for their children by entering the country illegally. As a result the government should find a fair way to reform immigration for the productive illegal immigrants. Immigration reform has been a topic for several years and still there is no reform. According to an article by Kim, (2012) â€Å"One state lawmaker wants to give illegal immigrants permission to work legally in the country if they dont have a criminal background. † If the illegal immigrant has lived in this country for a number of years without any major crime committed and they have a family, they should be penalize or fined not deported. Illegal immigrants who commit crimes other than simple driving violation should not be granted amnesty. There has to be reform in order to keep these families together or American citizen kids from being moved to an unknown country. This country needs some kind of immigration reform to keep children from suffering. With all this information you can clearly see the negative affects the immigration justice system is having on the family and children of illegal immigrants. Fathers and mothers are being ripped away from their children. When in all reality all they want is to give their children a better life and a fighting chance that they would not have in their own country. America is known as â€Å"the land of dreams and opportunity† and this is what most illegal immigrants want is an opportunity to fulfill their dreams in this country with their family. Therefore the government of our country should find away to reform immigration laws so the family and children of illegal immigrants are not affected in such a negative way.

The Korean War

The Korean War Abstract This study examines the relationship between declining public opinion towards the Truman administration during the Korean War ultimately leading to the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur. In hopes of succeeding in Korea, President Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as commander of the United Nations forces and both anticipated a short military ordeal.[1] Research findings discuss the tendency for a decline in public support as a conflict lasts longer than anticipated.[2] Although The Korean War experienced an initial backing by the American public, surveys taken after the start of Chinese involvement display a gradual decline in support for the Truman administration.[3] Public opinion polls are used to determine the nations stance on a given issue. As the war continued, with no end in sight, approval ratings dropped and President Truman faced increasing criticisms. Truman had to make a decision to continue military efforts under the guidance of General MacArthur and hope not antagonize the American Public or to dismiss the hero of the Republican Party in an attempt to save the remainder of his presidency. Ultimately Truman decides to dismiss MacArthur on April 11, 1951 and experiences a backlash; public opinion for the president continues to decline due to the dissatisfaction from MacArthur supporters.[4] Introduction Individual actors play a key role in the establishment and implementation of foreign policy. Disagreements between these actors can result in conflicts and difficulty in making decisions. Throughout the Korean War President Truman and General Douglas C. MacArthur experienced such a situation. At the start of the Korean War the American public had gone through numerous hardships. The nation was still healing from two world wars and the great depression. These difficult times had unified the country like never before. When President Truman came into office his transition from Vice President to President proved to be challenging. At the time vice presidents had minimal impact in policies implemented in the United States let alone foreign policy.[5] Truman stepped into office in a time of global turmoil. Communism was a key issue for American foreign policy. When North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25th, 1950 the Truman administration felt that it was necessary to become involved.[6] The United States had to make a statement; communism anywhere in the world would not be tolerated. The same factors that created a cohesive group of American citizens allowed for the public to rally behind the government.[7] Americans would not tolerate any countrys attempt to oppress freedom. Research shows that shorter wars receive higher approval ratings. Initially the Truman administration along with General MacArthur reassured the public that military efforts in the east would be short and victorious. [8] As the war continued weak media censorship educated the American public as to what was occurring on the warfront.[9] The nation began to criticize and question if the Korean War would truly be a victorious anti-communist campaign. Public opinion continued to decline after Chinas decision to take part in the war in November, 1950.[10] American citizens had already experienced two world wars in a short period of time and found themselves fearing a third. The following year only lead to greater concern and less support towards the Truman administration. Increased spending in hopes of rearming the United States military required the use of money that could have been allocated towards domestic programs and policies. Democrats and republicans alike began to strongly oppose the Korean War.[11] The Truman administration became aware of their declining approval ratings. In an attempt to regain support the government attempted to inform the nation as to why the war was necessary. When these attempts failed Truman realized that the Korean war had no end in sight and felt that the United States should take on less aggressive tactics. General MacArthur disagreed with the president and was ultimately dismissed leading to more disapproval.[12] By comparing public opinion trends, errors and commonalities to the Korean war and the government this paper will attempt to analyze the factors leading to a consensus of overall disapproval in the Truman administration. In doing so it becomes evident that regardless of what the government attempted to regain public support the nation could not be convinced. The following sections will discuss how times of war greatly impact public opinion and how the conflicts between President Truman and General MacArthur lead to increased criticism of the Korean War. Literature Review: Public Opinion Polls According to Marshall Gordons Dictionary of Sociology public opinion polls can be looked at as the measurement of opinions on specific issues through interviews with a representative sample of a group whose views are to be described. Polls can vary in the material in which they cover; however, the most common types of opinion polls focus on voting intentions, political party support, views on the government of the day and its policies and views on major current public issues. This information can be crucial in understanding how much support a political group is receiving especially throughout war times or conflict.[13] The results of public opinion polls have proven to be important in assessing the nations perception and understanding of a given theme. Because of its significance, one must take into account the problems and errors present within the polling process. A large percentage of inaccuracies or misrepresentations of the data occur at the survey taking stage and can lead an invalid data set. Richard G. Hall, among others discusses the increasing use of public opinion polls over recent years. Media outlets place emphasis on results to give a sense of the American publics stance on a given issue. However, one must take into account that one opinion poll on a specific issue may influence future polling relating to the same issue. This could create an inaccurate representation of the population as a whole, favoring the dominant group from the previous opinion poll, thus raising the question do opinion polls merely analyze or do they also help create the opinions?[14] Research shows that the majority opinion on a topic can be looked upon as the societal norm. By having a norm established, a type of precedent may occur, causing those who may be polled on the issue in the future to change their previous stance to match up with societal norms. This leads to a skewed interpretation of the general population, which in turn makes the opinion poll fairly unreliable.[15] The polling process is comprised of numerous individuals being asked questions privately; however, a collective behavior amongst the masses has posed problems for public opinion data. Mass behavior and crowd action are two distinct types of collective behavior that fundamentally impact public opinion results. Mass behavior is defined as collective behavior of an aggregate of individuals giving an appearance of unity of attitude, feeling, and motivation.[16] If mass behavior is to take place during the polling process, the results from one individual to the next would appear very similar, resulting in an overwhelming majority on the issue. Crowd behavior focuses on the influence a whole or group can have on the individuals within it. While in a crowd, a single individual may feel less responsibility and make decisions solely based on the whole, thus relinquishing prior opinions and beliefs for those of the crowd. The concept of crowd behavior would impact public opinion astronomically ; if the data gathered and the opinions expressed are not the beliefs truly held by those surveyed, their polls may as well be considered null and void.[17] Public opinion polls serve a simple purpose, to identify the wants and needs of citizens. A common complaint concerning polls is that of knowledge. Higher educated individuals have been quoted as feeling a lack of confidence towards the outcome of polls based on the answers given by less educated and less informed individuals. Similarly, American citizens are not made aware of every minuet detail of a political issue.[18] Therefore, their perceptions and interpretations of the given issue may be skewed and bias, causing public opinion to simply reflect the misunderstanding plaguing society as a whole The notion of public opinion polls allows United States citizens to feel involved in the democratic process. Elections from the local level to the presidential emphasize a government run by the people; public opinion polls reaffirm this idea. Citizens are given the opportunity to assess the status of the country in times of tranquility but also in times of struggle. However, as stated previously, if a majority of individuals surveyed are ill-informed or simply following societal norms, the outcome may not be relevant enough to base a governmental decision. In addition to the problems with the polling process listed above, another type of error causes a great deal of confusion and inaccurate results. Similar to sampling errors in the electoral process, citizens may frequently change their opinions on a given issue. Late swing and disproportionate refusals, although commonly used in electoral errors, can formulate bias in the polling system. An individual who votes one way while surveyed but feels another way may causes representational errors; changes in opinion can be legitimate or dishonest. Another form or error can come from disproportionate results, meaning that the individual taking the poll or casting their vote may refuse to be interviewed and discuss their position before hand.[19] Public opinion polls do not always adequately portray the thoughts and concerns of a nation, but the data is still taken into consideration and ultimately may have some say as to how the president makes a decision. President Truman realized that by early 1951, American Citizens had grown tired and weary of the Korean War. This coincided with Trumans desire to end the war and bring troops home. Although it was in Trumans nature to pay little attention to public opinion polls[20], his own wants aligned with those of the general public in terms of ending the war. The increased amount of aggression and force General MacArthur used towards the Republic of China not only went against Trumans wishes, but also the wishes of a vast percentage of the population. Truman had to not only evaluate his own wants but also that of his country in deciding whether or not to dismiss MacArthur.[21] The Feuds between President Truman and General MacArthur portray two distinct public opinions. Those who felt that the war should be over soon and feared what any more involvement would cause sided with the president. MacArthur did not lack support from the entire country; there were still individuals who considered the general to be the hero of the Republican Party. He was viewed as someone who bravely led the United States. After MacArthurs dismissal, he was still thought of as a hero and was welcomed back with praises and gratitude by many.[22] The conflict between President Truman and General MacArthur may have impacted approval ratings by splitting the country through party affiliations. However, one must not look at the issues between them as the principal reason for a decline in public support. During times of war numerous factors are introduced to the American public. Citizens find themselves living their lives differently, missing loved ones, experiencing economic difficulties and coping with death. These factors alongside others play a large role in declining opinions.[23] Scott Sigmund Gartner and Gary M. Segura discuss correlations between overall public opinion and the introduction of stressors brought on by conflict. When analyzing public opinion data in relation to casualties it seems that the public is sensitive to relatively small loses at the start of the war and only to large ones towards the end.[24] On the surface it may seem as though increased causalities would be the sole factor in determining how the public views the situation. However it takes various factors to influence public opinion, this may include; mounting economic costs, impact of a soldiers absence from home, anxiety as a result of being involved in a war in addition to the overall number of deaths. The longer a war lasts the greater chances there are for a decline in overall public support. The initial stages of a conflict have a tendency establishing a rally-around-the-flag mentality.[25] In which citizens experience a sense of unification and support the decision to go to war in hopes of solving the problem. However as the war drags on initial approval ratings begin to decrease and a new sense of opposition forms. Because of this shorter wars typically have higher approval ratings, while longer wars face immense amounts of criticism.[26] General Douglas MacArthur had originally predicted that the Korean War would be a short campaign for the United States. American troops took part in the Korean conflict in large part as a stand against communism. The anti-communism movement and hope that the war would end quickly established a rally-around-the-flag mentality of the American people. Due to collective experiences such as World War I, the great depression and World War II American established a sense of commonality. This unified front and desire to end oppression resulted in support. However, as the war waged on citizens began to openly criticize the Truman administration and disapprove of any involvement in Korea. Methodology This study examines how declines in public support of the Truman administration lead to the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur. To better understand the lack of support experienced by the government public opinion polls from the 1950s had to be analyzed. Online data bases were used to research public opinion polls in the broader sense. Articles from archival data bases clearly explained the importance of public opinion, what influences opinions, how they impact governmental processes and lastly the errors relating to them. This allowed for a comprehensive foundation for the study. Once the introductory research was conducted a relationship was formulated between public opinion throughout the war and the Truman administration. To gather pertinent information news paper articles, magazine stories (primarily from Life Magazine) and scholarly articles pertaining to the Truman administration were used. These resources were chosen because of data availability, at the time newspapers and magazines were the most popular forms of media outlets. Life magazine proved to be an intriguing and informative reference. The magazine began extensive coverage of the Korean War from the start and released weekly articles. The Stories covered all aspects of the war, from life in Korea to how the war had impacted the lives of a soldiers family. Archived articles from Life Magazine allowed for an interesting perspective of public opinion. The stories brought insight into how the American public felt about the war as things began to change. An issue released on July 10, 1950 titled Sy camore Backs the President discussed support of the Truman administration and their decision to enter Korea. Then after the Chinese invasion an article released on December 25, 1950 titled Sycamore Revisited interviewed the same individuals form the July 10th article to see where they stood. Those interviewed no longer approved of the Korean War.[27] Scholarly works such as journal articles and books allowed for an understanding of the chronological events taking place throughout the war. The conflict between Truman and MacArthur was made evident. By correlating public opinion trends to actual events one could begin to develop an idea as to why Truman dismissed MacArthur when he did. This allowed for a deeper comprehension of the stresses faced by the Truman administration and the factors leading to declining support. Findings: Factors Resulting in a Decline of Public Support President Harry S. Truman was supported by the American public when the decision was made to enter the Korean conflict. After North Koreas attack on South Korea on June 25th 1950, Trumans administration decided to take immediate action to repress any communist hostility. The decision to fight back was not solely based on the actions of North Korea; Truman feared a grand communist movement thus beginning a period of military reform. Trumans reform efforts allowed for a rearming of the military for immediate use in the Korean conflict and also for the long term application against communism.[28] The Truman administration began to implement new domestic reforms alongside the changes being made to the military. The fair deal built on Roosevelts New Deal and aimed to guarantee economic and social stability to the American public. The Korean conflict ultimately led to the demise of the fair deal. Increased spending on a permanent defense economy resulted in less funding available for domestic programs. The United States spent a substantial amount of money during the course of the Korean War. By wars end the defense budget rose from $13.5 billion to approximately $50 billion. The massive budgetary increase caused inflation. To handle inflation Americans entered a period of government control on wages, the price of goods and raw materials, raised corporate taxes and tightened credit. By implementing government controls the Truman administration was able to maintain support from the American public, both democrats and republicans seemed to trust the administration.[29] Along with military reforms President Truman appointed General Douglas C. MacArthur as the Commander of the United Nations forces during the first phases of the Korean War. General MacArthur gained recognition as a commander for the allies in the Southwest Pacific during World War II and was ordered to oversee the post-war occupation of Japan. At the start of the war it seemed as though the relationship between Truman and MacArthur would greatly benefit the United States, however, the opposite occurred. Truman and MacArthur frequently clashed on how to handle the war. As the administration began to be criticized and the overall consensus of the American public was that of leaving the war, Truman was forced to reevaluate the United States participation in the war.[30] The United States was able to successfully avoid mass economic havoc until China entered Korea in November 1950. Not only did the invasion cause a substantial amount of military stress but also economic struggles. The introduction of China as a player in the Korean War brought on the fear of a third world war. To counteract this fear the Truman administration began to speed up their military rearmament efforts, this resulted in increased inflation. November 1950 plays a pivotal point for Truman, at this time republicans and even democrats began to disapprove of the administration.[31] Criticism of the Truman administration and the war as a whole continued to rise as the end of the year approached. Life Magazine, which began publishing stories about the Korean War a week after its start, steadfastly discussed the issues facing the United States due to Chinas involvement in the Far East. An article titled Once More, We Got a Hell of a Beating published on December 11, 1950 stated that Chinas participation in the war changed everything and that Korea is an entirely new war as stated by MacArthur. United States troops had to mobilize quickly to suppress the Chinese; however according to the article mobilization was slow moving and consisted of weak man power. As the American public gained knowledge of the war through media outlets such as Life Magazine overall faith in the Truman administration began to deteriorate. Democrats and Republicans alike who had originally supported American involvement in the war found themselves questioning whether or not it was worth it.[ 32] In January of 1951 the Peoples Republic of China attempted to reach a peace agreement by asking for a 7-power conference to discuss the fate of Korea and Chinas position in the United Nations. President Truman along with the American government decided that it would not be beneficial to give China a seat in the United Nations; instead they censured the republic for aggression. Although China had been excluded from the United Nations MacArthur continued to torment the Chinese. In March he engaged in an ultimatum with the Peoples Republic of China. General MacArthur insisted that the Chinese remove troops from Korea. MacArthur then added that if Chinas troops were not removed they would face dire consequences. Truman was enraged with MacArthurs actions; President Truman did not appreciate how severely a single individual could impact foreign policy. The President realized that something must be done.[33] A few months after MacArthurs increased aggression towards China the general leaked news that he planned to use Chinese nationalists forces from Formosa in the Korean War. This plan of action was a complete contradiction to Trumans diplomatic policies leading to MacArthurs dismissal. Although Truman succeeded in firing General MacArthur the process was a difficult one. MacArthur had acquired a great deal of support and a substantial following from the Republican Party. Public opinion polls showed that MacArthur was incredibly popular in the eyes of the American Public. Because of this President Truman could not simply fire MacArthur without a valid reason and a warranted explanation.[34] Trumans decision to dismiss General MacArthur has been referred to as one of the major setbacks during the Korean War. After MacArthurs dismissal on April 11, 1951 media outlets released story after story on the conflict between Truman and MacArthur. Life magazine published an article on April 17th titled The Role of MacArthur an editorial piece chronicling his role in the Korean War. A later article released on May 7th titled Mac Rolls On focused on MacArthur as the hero of the Republican Party and embraced the general. Those who supported General MacArthur did not approve of Trumans decision to dismiss him resulting in declining public support.[35] General MacArthurs dismissal became a popular news story. Another topic gaining momentum was that of the Korean War leading to World War III. American citizens fear of this only increased after Chinese Involvement. The Public went from being told that the war would be a stand against communism to a long term global war. American citizens were still healing from World War II and lived with a constant fear of taking part in a similar conflict. The atomic bomb created an entirely new threat, one of complete and total annihilation. The impact of dropping the bomb on Hiroshima was catastrophic on the Japanese. The nuclear strength of the atomic bomb surpassed any bomb created before it. The American Association of the Advancement of Science discussed the use of the atomic bomb by the United States and described its power as follows:[36] Sixteen hours ago an American airplane dropped one bomb on Hiroshima, an important Japanese army base. The bomb had more power than 20,000 tons of TNT. It had more than 2,000 times the blast of the British Grand Slam, which is the largest bomb ever used in the history of warfare.[37] After the creation and use of the atomic bomb the worlds superpowers became increasingly eager to develop nuclear weapons to ensure a defense against one another. As stated above the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima was a deadly device. When World War II ended the atomic bombs strength had been compared to harnessing the basic power of the universe.[38] The American public was made aware of the force and destructive ability of the atomic bomb thus understanding the consequences of its use. A life magazine article titled How U.S. Cities can prepare for Atomic War discussed the publics fear of the Korean War ultimately resulting in a third World War. This led American citizens to create protocols and guidelines in case of nuclear warfare. By engaging in atomic bomb drills citizens dealt with a constant fear of being attacked, therefore, to reduce the chances of world war three the United States should end its involvement in the Korean War. [39] In an attempt to avoid a major world war President Truman deployed troops to Europe and provided aid and increased military assistance to members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). This decision faced a great deal of criticism, primarily from republicans and conservatives. Throughout the Korean War and at the start of Cold War struggles emphasis was placed on communism. Republicans and conservatives desired minimal government intervention in the lives of American citizens. Around this time the idea of McCarthyism began to take hold. Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin accused 205 members of government to being part of the American Communist Party. The stigma which coincided with being anti-American or anti-freedom caused a great deal of controversy. Senator McCarthys primary targets were democrats; he even stated that President Truman was soft on communism resulting in a decline of public support towards the Truman administration.[40] The Truman administration made several attempts to regain the support of American citizens. Although the Korean War did not end while Truman was president he still made an attempt to change his public image. Research shows that Truman did not typically give thought to overall public opinion; it was not in his character. However, the administration did make an attempt to gain support in hopes of having the American Public go along with numerous budgetary changes. The Truman Administrations Attempt to Regain American Support In the spring of 1950 the Truman administration began discussing an increase in defense spending. Government officials realized that public support typically declines during war times and felt that support would be needed when the budgetary changes took place. The administration created an approach to change the nations perspective of the consequences resulting from the war. The approach consisted of a simplistic and exaggerated information campaign, employing arguments that were clearer than truth. This campaign hoped to convince the public that the war a necessary evil. The administration realized that scare tactics would only work for so long; a new approach had to be introduced. Anti-communist rhetoric was constantly in the press. By frequently referring to the communist threat the government believed that the public would pay less attention to increased spending.[41] In the early stages of the Korean War media censorship was very limited. News papers and magazines were able receive information from the front lines and release them to the masses. President Truman was a complete contradiction to the transparent exchange of information from Korea and the United States. He attempted to avoid press conferences and discussions with the press. Truman even disapproved of other members of his administration conversations with the press. [42] Worries of overall public opinion became less of a focus for the administration after the Chinese invasion in late November, 1950. The Chinese posed a serious threat to the United States and their involvement in the Korean War. As a result the government made no deliberate attempt to mask or censor information from the American public. The opposite occurred; the public was then made aware of increased military spending. On December 15, 1950 Truman publically called for an immediate expansion of the armed forces to 3.5 million and declared a state of emergency in hopes of forcing the American public into accepting military rearmament and budgetary increases[43]. The following is an excerpt from Trumans address to the public; In June, the forces of communist imperialism broke out into open warfare in Korea. The United Nations moved to put down this act of aggression, and by October, had all but succeeded. Then in November, the communists threw their Chinese armies into the battle against the free nations. By this act they have shown that they are now willing to push the war to the brink of general war to get what they want. This is the real meaning of the events that have been taking place in Korea. That is why we are in such grave danger.[44] The Truman administration was facing a dire situation. The American public had been under the impression that the Korean War would be a short term ordeal. However as Truman stated in his address to the nation the Korean war had been pushed to the brink of general war by Chinese involvement. The public was becoming aware of how complex and drawn out the war was becoming. In an attempt to calm the public members of the state department began holding a series of off the record meetings with reporters, news correspondents and columnists to keep the American public informed of the situation on the war front. Discussion and Personal Opinions The Korean War proved to be devastating for the Truman administration. The American public had experienced turbulent times including the great depression and two world wars before the governments decision to take part in the Korean conflict in 1950. One can only imagine how horrifying and stressful involvement in the war would have been to the citizens of the United States. This study focused on the factors resulting in a decline of public support. At the start of the war president Truman was successful in having the American people rally behind the anti-communist cause. It appeared as though the war would eradicate communism from every inch of the globe. The United States, which stood for freedom would not tolerate communist expansion and mobilization. As a current citizen of the United States one can relate to the notion of protecting the rights and privileges of living in a democratic society. Civilians are given the opportunity to take part in governmental procedures by voting and evaluating the status of the nation through public opinion polls and surveys. Unlike a communist regime the American government does place emphasis on the wants and needs of the masses. This had to be protected any way possible. The Korean War therefore could not be avoided and the Truman administration was eager to send troops over. Before the Chinese invasion military efforts seemed to be successful. The United Nation forces under the leadership of General Douglas MacArthur appeared to be making progress. As stated previously the overall consensus of the public was to rally-around-the-flag. With an increasing threat of a communist uprising the government and the general public felt that it was the perfect time to end communism once and for all. Propaganda campaigns constantly labeled citizens as communists. McCarthyism took a strong hold and spread like wild fire. People from all walks of life found themselves being accused of supporting the American Communist party, even President Truman and democrats alike were said to be soft towards communism or in other words more accepting of it.[45] One can understand how the threat of communism could have unified the nation in support for the Korean war. Media outlets repeatedly reported on the approval the public had on the war. At the time the public had been promised a short term military effort. The war seemed to be something that would end rather soon and achieve a highly desirable outcome. By winning in Korea the United States would have (1) repressed a communist expansion and (2) made a statement to the rest of the world. A victory in Korea would tell all other nations attempti

Nerve Conduction Physiology

Nerve Conduction Physiology BASIC PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE CONDUCTION The neurons form the building blocks of the nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) contains about 100 billion neurons. It also contains 10–50 times this number of glial cells. Neurons Neurons in the mammalian central nervous system come in many different shapes and sizes. Most of them have the same parts as a typical spinal motor neuron shown in Figure 2. Figure-2: Typical spinal motor neuron The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus and is the metabolic center of the neuron. Neurons have processes known as dendrites which extend outward from the cell body and arborize extensively. Particularly in the cerebral and cerebellar cortex, the small knobby projections over dendrites are called dendritic spines. The dendrites are the receptive part of the neuron. A typical neuron has long fibrous axon that originates from thickened area of the cell body, the axon of hillock. The first portion of the axon is called the initial segment. The axon divides into presynaptic terminals, each ending in a number of synaptic knobs which are also called terminal buttons or boutons. They contain granules or vesicles in which the synaptic transmitters secreted by the nerves are stored. The axonal process is responsible for transmission of propagated impulses to the nerve endings. Based on the number of processes that emanate from their cell body, neurons can be classified as unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar. Figure-3: Unipolar and bipolar neurons Figure-4: Multipolar neurons Glial cells: There are two major types of glial cells : microglia and macroglia. Microglia are scavenger cells they resemble tissue macrophages and remove debris resulting from injury, infection, and disease (eg, multiple sclerosis, AIDS-related dementia, Parkinson disease, and Alzheimer disease). Microglia arise from macrophages outside the nervous system and are physiologically and embryologically unrelated to other neural cell types. Glial cells continue to undergo cell division even in adults and their ability to proliferate is particularly noticeable after brain injury (eg, stroke). There are three types of macroglia: 1 Oligodendrocytes, 2 Schwann Cells, and 3 Astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells form myelin around axons in the CNS and PNS , respectively. Astrocytes are of two subtypes. Fibrous astrocytes, which contain intermediate filaments, found primarily in white matter. Protoplasmic astrocytes are found in gray matter having granular cytoplasm. Both types of astrocytes send processes to blood vessels, where they induce capillaries forming the tight junctions making up the blood–brain barrier. They send processes enveloping synapses and surface of nerve cells. Protoplasmic astrocytes have a membrane potential varying with the external K+ concentration but they do not generate propagated potentials. They produce substances that are tropic to neurons, and they help maintain the appropriate concentration of ions and neurotransmitters by taking up K+ and the neurotransmitters glutamate and ÃŽ ³-aminobutyrate (GABA). The axons of many neurons are myelinated, that is, they acquire myelin sheath, a complex of protein lipid wrapped around axon. In the peripheral nervous system, when a Schwann cell wraps its membrane around an axon up to 100 times myelin is formed. The myelin is then compacted when the extracellular portions of a membrane protein called protein zero (P0) lock to the extracellular portions of P0 in the apposing membrane. The axon is covered by myelin sheath except at the ending and at the nodes of Ranvier, periodic 1-m constrictions that are about 1 mm apart (Barrett et al., 2012). In the myelinated neurons, the junction between the 2 Schwann cells is known as the node of Ranvier, where the axon remains uninsulated. The intermodal distance is the distance between the 2 nodes of Ranvier and depends upon the spacing of Schwann cells at the time of myelination. As there is no proliferation of Schwann cells later on, intermodal distance increases during the growth of nerve. Thus the fibe rs myelinated early have longer intermodal distance, larger diameter and wider spacing at the node of Ranvier. The nerve conduction velocity depends on the fiber diameter and intermodal distance. The larger the axon the thicker the myelin sheath and longer the internodal distance, the faster the conduction velocity. (Mishra Kalita, 2006). Not all neurons are myelinated; some are unmyelinated, that is, simply surrounded by Schwann cells without the wrapping of the Schwann cell membrane that produces myelin around the axon. Figure-5: Glial cells: A Oligodendrocyte, B Schwann Cell, C Astrocyte Most of the neurons are myelinated in the CNS of mammals,, but the cells that form the myelin are oligodendrocytes rather than Schwann cells. Unlike the Schwann cell, which forms the myelin between two nodes of Ranvier on a single neuron, oligodendrocytes emit multiple processes that form myelin on many neighboring axons. Generation and conduction of impulse in nerve cells Nerve cells have a low threshold for excitation responding to electrical, chemical, or mechanical stimulus. Two types of physicochemical disturbances are produced and these are the only electrical responses of neurons and other excitable tissues,. local, non propagated potentials; and propagated potentials, the action potentials (or nerve impulses) and they are the main language of the nervous system. They are produced by alterations in ion channels causing changes in the conduction of ions across the cell membrane. These electrical events are rapid, measured in milliseconds (ms); and the potential changes are small, being measured in millivolts (mV). The impulse is normally transmitted (conducted) along the axon to its termination. Conduction of nerve impulses is rapid but much slower than that of electricity. Conduction is an active process it is self-propagating , and the impulse moves at a constant amplitude and velocity. Resting membrane potential The resting membrane potential represents an equilibrium situation at which the driving force for the membrane-permeant ions down their concentration gradients across the membrane is equal and opposite to the driving force for these ions down their electrical gradients. In neurons, the concentration of K+ is much higher inside than outside the cell, while the reverse is the case for Na+. This concentration difference is established by the Na+K+ ATPase. In neurons, the resting membrane potential is usually about –70 mV, which is close to the equilibrium potential for K+. Action potential In response to a depolarizing stimulus, some of the voltage-gated Na+ channels become active, and when the threshold potential is reached, the voltage-gated Na+ channels overwhelm the K+ and other channels and an action potential results (a positive feedback loop). The membrane potential moves toward the equilibrium potential for Na+ (+60 mV) but does not reach it during the action potential, primarily because the increase in Na+ conductance is short-lived. The sodium ion channels rapidly get closed called the inactivated state .In addition, the direction of the electrical gradient for Na+ is reversed during the overshoot because the membrane potential is reversed, and this limits Na+ influx. A third factor producing repolarization is the opening of voltage-gated K+ channels. This opening is slower and more prolonged than the opening of the Na+ channels, and consequently, much of the increase in K+ conductance comes after the increase in Na+ conductance. The net movement of positive charge out of the cell due to K+ efflux at this time helps complete the process of repolarization. The slow return of the K+ channels to the closed state also explains the after-hyperpolarization, followed by a return to the resting membrane potential. Thus, voltage-gated K+ channels bring the action potential to an end and cause closure of their gates through a negative feedback process. Distribution of Ion Channels in Myelinated Neurons The spatial distribution of ion channels along the axon plays a key role in the initiation and regulation of the action potential. Voltage-gated Na+ channels are highly concentrated in the nodes of Ranvier and the initial segment in myelinated neurons. The initial segment and, in sensory neurons, the first node of Ranvier are the sites where impulses are normally generated, and the other nodes of Ranvier are the sites to which the impulses jump during saltatory conduction which is responsible for faster impulse conduction in myelinated neurons. The number of Na+ channels per square micrometer of membrane in myelinated mammalian neurons has been estimated to be 50–75 in the cell body, 350–500 in the initial segment, less than 25 on the surface of the myelin, 2000–12,000 at the nodes of Ranvier, and 20–75 at the axon terminals. Along the axons of unmyelinated neurons, the number is about 110. Electrogenesis of the Action Potential The nerve cell membrane is polarized at rest, with positive charges lined up along the outside of the membrane and negative charges along the inside. During the action potential, this polarity is abolished and for a brief period is actually reversed. Positive charges from the membrane ahead of and behind the action potential flow into the area of negativity represented by the action potential (current sink). By drawing off positive charges, this flow decreases the polarity of the membrane ahead of the action potential. Such electrotonic depolarization initiates a local response, and when the firing level is reached, a propagated response occurs that in turn electrotonically depolarizes the membrane in front of it. (Barrett et al., 2012) Figure-6: Propagation of Action Potential Action potential generated in axons is propagated to either direction from its site of origin. Intracellular current flows from the active zone where the inner cell membrane is positively charged compared to adjacent inactive membrane which is negatively charged. An opposing current flows through the extracellular fluid from the inactive to active region. This local current depolarizes the adjacent inactive regions, thus resulting in impulse propagation bidirectionally along the axon. The physiologic impulses, however, arise at one end of the axon i.e., the cell body or sensory terminal and are conducted only orthodromically. In pathological conditions, however, this order of conduction is not maintained. In the myelinated fibers, the conduction is much faster than the unmyelinated. In normal myelinated axons the impulse propagated by saltatory conduction. Saltatory conduction has been compared with a kangaroo travelling at speed. The action potential advance at near uniform velocity , but it is powered by discrete kicks of inward membrane current at the nodes of Ranvier. For rapid conduction, the intermodal distance should be great enough to maximize the jump of the action potential and reduce the loss of current at the node of Ranvier. In myelinated fibers the time required for the local current to excite the next node depends on the longitudinal resistance of the axoplasm, capacitance, and conductance of the intermodal membrane. With high value of these parameters, more current is dissipated before impulse reaches the next node. This results in longer time for the impulse to depolarize the adjacent node, which is responsible for the slower conduction. Myelin thickness is inversely related to internodal capacitance and conductance. Conduction velocity, therefore, increases with the increase in myelin to a certain point. In segmental demyelination or during remyelination, myelin sheath is thin, intermodal distance shorter, internodal conductance and capacitance is increased. These result in greater loss of local current before reaching the next node of Ranvier. The failure to activate the node of Ranvier results in conduction block. In case of a partial conduction, the impulse propagation is slowed due to longer time required by the dissipating current to generate an action potential. In segmental demyelination of smaller fibers the conduction may become continuous instead of saltatory. Impulse conduction in unmyelinated fibers occurs in a continuous manner which accounts for slower conduction velocity compared to saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers. The conduction velocity also slows down in focal compression, which may be due to demyelination and decrease in fiber diameter. (Mishra Kalita ,2006).The loss of myelin is associated with delayed or blocked conduction in the demyelinated axons. Normal conduction of action potentials relies on the insulating properties of myelin. Thus, defects in myelin can have major adverse neurological consequences. Loss of myelin leads to leakage of K+ through voltage-gated channels, hyperpolarization, and failure to conduct action potentials. Nerve conduction tests can detect slowed conduction in motor and sensory pathways. (Barrett et al., 2012) NERVE CONDUCTION STUDIES (NCS) The main indication of nerve conduction studies are for evaluation of paraesthesias (insensibility, creeping, fiery) or instability of the arms and legs. The type of study depends on symptoms presented. (Gutmann et al., 2003) NCS studies evaluate the dormancy, magnitude, as well as the pattern of the feedback following stimulation of the peripheral nerve through the skin and tissues by an electrical stimuli. The principle of nerve conduction studies (Mallik, Weir., 2005) In NCS we apply depolarizing electrical pulse square wave to the skin over a peripheral nerve generating a proliferate nerve action potential (NAP) recorded at a distant point over the same nerve. A compound  muscle action potential (CMAP) originating from the awaking of muscle grains in a destination muscle supplied by the nerve. These propagate nerve action potential and compound muscle action potential may be cited with surface or needle electrodes. Minor electrodes are restricted to allow around the full muscle stimulated, giving data for the time taken for the rapid axons to conduct an impulse to the muscle and the size of the feedback. Needle electrodes for NCS give authentic conduction time information, but because they evident from a small area of muscle or nerve it gives poor information and making numerical analysis difficult. Also it is difficult to obtain patient cooperation in an invasive technique. Nerves to be tested can either be stimulated through the skin with surface catalyst or it can be tested via a needle fixed close to the nerve or nerve roots. Choice of the stimulant depends on the desire to bracket above and below the  point of a prospective focal contusion and the anatomical opportunity to the applicable structure. (Mallik Weir et al., 2005). Motor nerve conduction performing motor nerve conduction study the surface electrodes overlying a muscle supplied by nerve to be tested is electrically stimulated and compound muscle action potential (CMAP) is recorded . The recording electrodes are fixed using sticky conducive pads placed in to the  overlying target muscle. The effective electrode is placed over the muscle belly and the reference electrode is situated over an electrically inactive site near by muscle tendon. A grounding electrode is placed between the electrodes maintaining a zero voltage reference point. The CMAP  is a calculated voltage response from an individual muscle fiber action potentials. The shortened inactivity of the CMAP is the time from stimulus  to the onset of action and it is a biphasic response with an initial upward deflection followed by a smaller downward deflection. The CMAP  amplitude is consistent from baseline to negative peak (the neurophysiological convention is that negative volta ge is demonstrated by an upward  deflection) and caculated in millivolts (mV) Figure-7: Compound Muscle Action Potential (CMAP) For recording CMAP, the stimulating current or voltage  is constantly increased until a point where there is no increment in CMAP amplitude. It is only at  supramaximal point that reproducible values for CMAP amplitude and the latency between the stimulus and the onset of the CMAP can be recorded  accurately. (Mishra Kalita, 2006) . The nerve is then excited at a more proximal site. In the normal state stimulating a nerve at  proximal site results in two CMAPs of similar shape and amplitude because the like motor axons innervate the muscle fibres making up the response  However, the latency will be greater for proximal stimulation compared with distal stimulation because of the longer distance between the stimulating  and documenting electrodes. The difference in inactivity represents the time taken for the fastest nerve fibre to conduct between the two stimulation  points as well as other factors involving neuromuscular transmission and muscle activation which is comm on to both stimulation sites. (MallikWeir  Gooch Pullman, 2005; Barboi Barkhaus,2004) . If we want to measures the distance between two sites then the fastest  can be calculated as follows: MNCV (m/s) = Distance between stimulation site 1 and site 2 (mm) [latency site 2 latency site 1  measurement the distance between 2 points of stimulation should be atleast10 cm. which reduces the error due to faulty distance  Stimulation at shorter segments of the nerve, however, is necessary in the evaluation of focal compression neuropathies e.g. CTS. Such short segment  stimulation does not allow the effect of focal slowing to be diluted by the unaffected nerve segment (Mishra Kalita, 2006) Sensory  StudiesThe sensory nerve action potential (SNAP) is achived by electrically stimulating sensory nerve fibres by a supra maximal stimulus and caculating the  nerve action potential at a point . Recording the SNAP orthodromically indicate to distal nerve stimulation and recording more  proximally (the direction in which physiological sensory conduction occurs). Recording the SNAP antidromically refers to proximal nerve stimulation  and recording more distally (opposite in order to the physiological sensory conduction occurs). Different laboratories have different antidromic or  orthodromic methods for testing different nerves. The acceleration correlates directly with the sensory latency, because the residual latency which  comprises neuromuscular transmission time and muscle propagation time is not applicable in sensory nerve conduction and therefore, either the results  may be expressed as latency over a standard distance, or acceleration. Only 20% largest diameter and fastest conducting sensory nerve fibres are  using in the conventional studies functionally supplying fine touch, vibration, and position sense. Predominantly small fibre neuropathies affecting  the 80% of fibres existing with prominent symptoms of pain and conventional studies .The various abnormal findings  are conduction slowing, conduction blockage, lack of responses,or low amplitude responses. NCV studies can acknowledge the degree of demyelination  and axonal loss in the segments of nerve examined. Demyelination of a nerve results in prolongation of conduction time (decreased conduction  velocity), where as axonal loss generally leads to the loss of nerve fiber and muscle potential amplitude. ( Mallik ,Weir., 2005)

Significance of the Ghost to William Shakespeares Hamlet Essay

Significance of the Ghost to William Shakespeare's Hamlet In Shakespeare's 'Hamlet', the ghost plays a key role in influencing the destinies of the other characters. The ghost is important to the play as it symbolizes both fate and catalyses the plot. It also brings the play into the revenge tragedy genre, which allows foreshadowing to occur and helps the audience, both Elizabethan and contemporary to better understand the play and appreciate it. The late King Hamlet is forced to roam the earth as he was murdered before he could confess to his sins, having to remain in purgatory till his sins are washed from him and he is able to enter into heaven. Hamlet, the tragic hero of the play, and is influenced by the encounter with whom he believes to be his late father, the ghost. Hamlet was both horror-struck and mortified to hear of his father's betrayal. He immediately felt that he must avenge his father and this reveals the role of the ghost, who is able to affect the protagonist. Hamlet is instructed to punish Claudius, the late King Hamlet's brother and murderer. The ghost reveals that Claudius, by killing his own brother, has committed a, "murder most foul," and deserves to die. Written during the first part of the seventeenth century, the tragic endings of revenge plays were pre-ordained by the church and state expectations. Revenge was deemed acceptable only if the avenger died at the end of the play. Only by dying could someone be forgiven for the immoral and illegal act of revenge. Hamlet is placed in this situation by the ghost, who orders him to act against his conscience, and the diametrically opposed commands paralyze hi... ... that the ghost is simply a convention of Elizabethan drama, but although the ghost motif had been used in many dramas of the period, none appeared so ambiguous as the ghost of King Hamlet. This essay illustrates that here may be many interpretations of the ghost, and that these different aspects may affect our understanding of the play. The dual nature of the ghost is reflective of the dual nature of man. The ghost's ambiguities are essential in heightening the tragic element of the play. In embracing the ghost, Hamlet embraces both good and evil. Bibliography www.vccslitonline.cc.va.us/HamletForum/_hamletforum/000002e8.htm www.clicknotes.com/hamlet/Ghost.html www.culturewars.com/CultureWars/2000/June/hamlet.html www.hf.ntnu.no/engelsk/shakespeare/ham.htm www.findfreeessays.com/show_essay/4873.html

The Opening of Glass Menagerie Essay -- Glass Menagerie Plays Themes E

The Opening of Glass Menagerie The opening of Glass Menagerie is key in establishing themes, relationships, dramatic conventions character symbolism and style. Discuss. The opening of the play ‘Glass Menagerie’ let the audience know about various elements of the play such as themes, relationships, characters and dramatic conventions. This was done by detailed description of the setting and the narrator, Tom informing the audience. The main themes of the play could be found in the opening. The fact that the play was about memory had been made clear in the beginning with the line, â€Å"the scene is memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Once again confirmed very clearly by Tom who said, â€Å"the play is memory.† The audience could easily interpret that this play was Tom’s memory of his life with Amanda and Laura in St Louis. At the end of the play the audience found out that Tom could not erase the memory of leaving Laura. â€Å"Oh, Laura, Laura I tried to leave you behind me but I am more faithful than I intended to be.† This theme of memory influenced Amanda also as the play progressed. It became evident that she could not escape from her memories of living in the â€Å"Blue Mountain† where she had a pleasurable and an abundant life. Few minutes after the play began the audience already hears Amanda babbling about it â€Å"I remember one Sunday afternoon in Blue Mountain†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This happened throughout the play consistently. She would talk about her life in the â€Å"Blue Mountain† whenever she got a chance to. So it would be quite true to say that Amanda was living in her memory, which caused her to deny the reality. The idea of accepting the reality was also evident in the opening of the play. Tom spoke of gentleman caller who â€Å"is the most realis... ...When she had one finally, he turned out to be the greatest disappointment and left her devastated in the end. So Amanda had to awkwardly sum the whole incident up by saying â€Å"things have a way of turning out so badly,† and blame it all on Tom. The unusual dramatic conventions were set in the opening. The narrator, Tom directly addressed the audience, â€Å"I am the narrator of the play†¦Ã¢â‚¬  which was unusual. Also by using the screens to produce appropriate images and music frequently, the play was made more interesting and accessible to the audience. The opening of the play was the key in establishing themes, characters and their relationships and dramatic conventions as it revealed them effectively to the audience. So the audience could easily understand what was happening, guess what would happen and receive the message that was meant to be delivered.

The Competitors :: Creative Writing Essays

Creative Writing: The Competitors As thousands of people poured into the rectangular shaped stadium for what was being called, "the event of the century" , the participants readied themselves for the hardships they would surely suffer from the games. After a long grueling season of intense bodily torture this would by the final chapter of confrontations. Out of the 275 original members of the DFS leagues infant year, only 20 remained. These men and women were not only hardened on the outside, but on the inside as well for they had long since learned the weaknesses that emotions bring. Everyone one present in the cubical that was called a dressing room knew that as soon as the capacity crowd of 300,000 had settled, they would no longer be comrades brought together by the common bond that friendship makes but enemies of the battle field each one jockeying for the upper hand. As the referee announced there was half an hour left before game time, a few players huddled together to say a quick prayer while others gathered around the head coach for a final word of advice. One of the competitors listening to this advice was Matt Williams or "The Destroyer", as he was known by the crowd. He was a powerfully built young man who was in the possession of deep opaline eyes, nightmarish black hair, and a ruddy complexion. Feared by all for his ruthless behavior, Matt had joined the DFS league after being courtmarshaled by the army for striking the commanding officer of his platoon. Why he was even near the coach was a mystery to him because most of the coaches words fell on unhearing ears. Matt guessed he was just nervous. Who wouldn't be. Looking up, Matt saw that the coach had left and it was time to enter the field. Strapping on his helmet and the rest of his gear, he took a deep breath, focused his thoughts, and ran out onto the field joining the rest of the players. The roar of the crowd sounded as if a tsunami was breaking on the beach and the ground felt as if it were pulsating with a life of its own. He never remembered these feelings before but he simply shrugged off the thought as he faintly heard the sound of the referee's whistle. Suddenly, the sound of the crowd was replaced by e reverberating silence that was deafening in Matt's ears.

Physics, Roller Coasters

Part 1 Roller coasters Additional notes: GPE = m x g x h KE = m x v? The main energy transfers that happen as a car travels along the track from the start of the ride to the end: [1]The rollercoaster car gains gravitational potential energy (GPE) as it travels to the top. Once over the top, the car gains speed as GPE is transferred to kinetic energy (KE). As it travels to the top of another loop, KE is transferred to GPE. Not all the energy is transferred to or from GPE – some is transferred to the surroundings as heat and sound.All moving objects have kinetic energy, KE. The kinetic energy an object has depends on the mass and speed. If the mass doubles, the KE doubles and if the speed doubles, the KE quadruples. Normally energy is lost through sound and heat (friction, air resistance). How the heights of the hills are designed to allow an empty car to reach the end of the ride: [2]The hills are designed so that it is low enough that the momentum of the car from the previous drop carries it up and over the hill.This is why the hills are usually lower towards the end of the ride, because the car has lost momentum due to friction and air resistance. Mainly the consecutive hill must be lower as it will not have enough energy because some of it is lost and sound and heat. Therefore, if the car was to reach the end of the ride, the height of the hills must be lower each consecutive time. How the energy transfers determine the heights of the hills: [4] After the roller coaster is drops from the first hill it does two things with its energy.First, it begins to transform that energy from one form to another–from gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy and from kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy, back and forth. Second, it begins to transfer some of its energy to its environment, mostly in the form of heat and sound. Each time the roller coaster goes downhill, its gravitational potential energy decreases and its kinetic energy incre ases. Each time the roller coaster goes uphill, its kinetic energy decreases and its gravitational potential energy increases.But each transfer of energy isn't complete because some of the energy is lost to heat and sound. Because of this lost energy, the roller coaster can't return to its original height after coasting downhill. That's why each successive hill must be lower than the previous hill. Eventually the roller coaster has lost so much of its original total energy that the ride must end. With so little total energy left, the roller coaster can't have much gravitational potential energy and must be much lower than the top of the first hill.This is why the hills must be a certain height, in order to transfer enough GPE into KE. Bibliography: [1] http://www. bbc. co. uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_ocr_gateway/forces/themeridesrev2. shtml [2] http://science. howstuffworks. com/engineering/structural/roller-coaster3. htm [3] http://www. coasterforce. com/coasters/technical- info/physics-of-a-coaster [4] http://library. thinkquest. org/26455/amuse/roller/roller01. shtml [5] – Collins Additional Sciences B ISBN-13 978-0-00-741531-1 Colin Bell, 2011